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FORE:In respect to repairing alone, the consideration of having the parts of machinery fitted to standard sizes is often equal to its whole value.It is strange, considering the simplicity of construction and the very important office filled by machines for cutting on plane surfaces, that they were not sooner invented and applied in metal work. Many men yet working at finishing, can remember when all flat surfaces were chipped and filed, and that long after engine lathes had reached a state of efficiency and were generally employed, planing machines were not known. This is no doubt to be accounted for in the fact that reciprocal movement, except that produced by cranks or eccentrics, was unknown or regarded as impracticable for useful purposes until late years, and when finally applied it was thought impracticable to have such movements operate automatically. This may seem quite absurd to even an apprentice of the present time, yet such reciprocating movement, as a mechanical problem, is by no means so simple as it may at first appear.

Time 2:00 pm at 25th july

FORE:The Academic theory of probability bears some resemblance to the Canonic of Epicurus, and may have been partially suggested by it. Both are distinguished from the Aristotelian and Stoic logic by the care with which they provide for the absence of contradictory evidence. In this point, however, the superiority of Carneades to Epicurus is very marked. It is not enough for him that a present impression should suggest a belief not inconsistent with past experience; in the true inductive spirit, he expressly searches for negative instances, and recommends the employment of experiment for this purpose. Still more philosophical is the careful and repeated analysis of attendant circumstances, a precaution not paralleled by anything in the slovenly method of his predecessor. Here the great value of scepticism as an element in mental training becomes at once apparent. The extreme fallibility of the intellectus sibi permissus had to be established before precautions could be adopted for its restraint. But the evidence accepted in proof of this fallibility has been very different at different times, and has itself given rise to more than one fallacious interpretation. With us it is, for the most part, furnished by experience. The circumstance that many demonstrable errors were formerly received as truths is quite sufficient to put us on our guard against untested opinions. With Bacon, it was not the erroneousness of previous systems, but their barrenness and immobility, which led him to question the soundness of their logic; and his doubts were confirmed by an analysis of the disturbing influences under which men��s judgments are formed. The ancient Sceptics were governed entirely by �� priori considerations. Finding themselves confronted by an immense mass of contradictory opinions, they argued that some of these must be false as all could not possibly be true. And an analysis of the human faculties156 led them, equally on �� priori grounds, to the conclusion that these irreconcilable divergences were but the result and the reproduction of an interminable conflict carried on within the mind itself. They could not foresee how much time would do towards reducing the disagreement of educated opinion within a narrower compass. They did not know what the experience of experience itself would teach. And their criticisms on the logic and metaphysics of their opponents were rendered inconclusive, as against all certainty, by the extent to which they shared that logic and metaphysics themselves. Carneades, at least, seems to assume throughout that all existence is material, that there is a sharp distinction between subject and object in knowledge, and that there is an equally sharp distinction between sensation and reasoning in the processes by which knowledge is obtained. In like manner, his ethical scepticism all turns on the axiom, also shared by him with the Stoics, that for a man to be actuated by any motive but his own interest is mere folly.

Time 2:00 pm at 25th july